Additional Research: DHA

Learn more about the brain nutrition benefits of Omega-3 DHA: 

  • Brenna JT, Carlson SE. Docosahexaenoic acid and human brain development: evidence that a dietary supply is needed for optimal development. J Hum Evol. 2014 Dec;77:99–106. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24780861 
  • Brenna JT, Varamini B, Jensen RG, Diersen-Schade DA, Boettcher JA, Arterburn LM. Docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acid concentrations in human breast milk worldwide. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007 Jun;85(6):1457–64. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17556680 
  • Hadley KB, Ryan AS, Forsyth S, Gautier S, Salem N. The Essentiality of Arachidonic Acid in Infant Development. Nutrients. 2016 Apr 12;8(4):216. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27077882 
  • World Health Organization (WHO). Interim Summary of Conclusions and Dietary Recommendations on Total Fat & Fatty Acids. 2008 Nov 10; Available from: https://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/FFA_summary_rec_conclusion.pdf?ua=1
  • Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation (UN FAO). Fats and fatty acids in human nutrition: Report of an expert consultation. 2008 Nov; Available from: http://foris.fao.org/preview/25553-0ece4cb94ac52f9a25af77ca5cfba7a8c.pdf
  • The National Academy of Medicine. Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and amino acids. Washington, D.C: National Academies Press; 2005. 1331 p. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12449285 
  • Omega-3 Fatty Acids:  Fact Sheet for Health Professionals [Internet]. National Institute of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. 2018 [cited 2018 Jul 12]. Available from: https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-HealthProfessional/ 
  • Keim SA, Branum AM. Dietary intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids and fish among US children 12–60 months of age. Maternal & Child Nutrition [Internet]. 2013 Sep 13 [cited 2018 Aug 17];11(4):987–98. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12077 
  • Madden SMM, Garrioch CF, Holub BJ. Direct diet quantification indicates low intakes of (n-3) fatty acids in children 4 to 8 years old. J Nutr. 2009 Mar;139(3):528–32. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19158221 
  • Harika R, C Cosgrove M, Osendarp S, Verhoef P, Zock P. Fatty acid intakes of children and adolescents are not in line with the dietary intake recommendations for future cardiovascular health: A systematic review of dietary intake data from thirty countries. Vol. 106. 2011. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21554818 
  • U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. 2018. Nutrient Intakes from Food and Beverages: Mean Amounts Consumed per Individual, by Gender and Age, What We Eat in America, NHANES 2015-2016. [Internet]. Available from: www.ars.usda.gov/nea/bhnrc/fsrg 
  • Anderson, Pauline. (2013, July 13). Low Omega-3 in Kids Linked to Behavior, Cognitive Deficits. Retrieved from: https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/808285  
  • Innis SM. Dietary (n-3) fatty acids and brain development. J Nutr. 2007 Apr;137(4):855–9. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17374644 
  • Ryan L, Symington AM. Algal-oil supplements are a viable alternative to fish-oil supplements in terms of docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3; DHA). Journal of Functional Foods [Internet]. 2015 Dec 1 [cited 2018 Jul 11];19:852–8. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1756464614002229 
  • Neubronner J, Schuchardt JP, Kressel G, Merkel M, von Schacky C, Hahn A. Enhanced increase of omega-3 index in response to long-term n-3 fatty acid supplementation from triacylglycerides versus ethyl esters. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2011 Feb;65(2):247–54. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21063431 
  • Harris WS, Pottala JV, Sands SA, Jones PG. Comparison of the effects of fish and fish-oil capsules on the n 3 fatty acid content of blood cells and plasma phospholipids. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007 Dec;86(6):1621–5. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18065578 
  • Arterburn LM, Oken HA, Bailey Hall E, Hamersley J, Kuratko CN, Hoffman JP. Algal-oil capsules and cooked salmon: nutritionally equivalent sources of docosahexaenoic acid. J Am Diet Assoc. 2008 Jul;108(7):1204–9. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18589030 
  • Mathews SA, Oliver WT, Phillips OT, Odle J, Diersen-Schade DA, Harrell RJ. Comparison of Triglycerides and Phospholipids as Supplemental Sources of Dietary Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Piglets. The Journal of Nutrition [Internet]. 2002 Oct 1;132(10):3081–9. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jn/131.10.3081 
  • Carnielli V, Verlato G, Pederzini F, Luijendijk I, Boerlage A, Pedrotti D, et al. Intestinal absorption of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in preterm infants fed breast milk or formula. Vol. 67. 1998. 97 p. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9440382 
  • Barrow CJ, Nolan C, Holub BJ. Bioequivalence of encapsulated and microencapsulated fish-oil supplementation. Journal of Functional Foods [Internet]. 2009 Jan 1;1(1):38–43. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1756464608000078 
  • Freund Levi Y, Vedin I, Cederholm T, Basun H, Faxén Irving G, Eriksdotter M, et al. Transfer of omega-3 fatty acids across the blood-brain barrier after dietary supplementation with a docosahexaenoic acid-rich omega-3 fatty acid preparation in patients with Alzheimer’s disease: the OmegAD study. J Intern Med. 2014 Apr;275(4):428–36. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24410954
  • Rapoport SI, Ramadan E, Basselin M. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) incorporation into the brain from plasma, as an in vivo biomarker of brain DHA metabolism and neurotransmission. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat. 2011 Nov;96(1–4):109–13. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21704722 
  • Kuratko CN, Barrett EC, Nelson EB, Norman S. The Relationship of Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) with Learning and Behavior in Healthy Children: A Review. Nutrients [Internet]. 2013 Jul 19 [cited 2018 Jul 10];5(7):2777–810. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3738999/ 
  • Nyaradi A, Li J, Hickling S, Foster J, Oddy WH. The role of nutrition in children’s neurocognitive development, from pregnancy through childhood. Front Hum Neurosci [Internet]. 2013 Mar 26 [cited 2018 Jul 10];7. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3607807/ 
  • Brenna JT, Lapillonne A. Background paper on fat and fatty acid requirements during pregnancy and lactation. Ann Nutr Metab. 2009;55(1–3):97–122. Available from: https://www.karger.com/Article/PDF/228998 
  • Hsieh AT, Brenna JT. Dietary docosahexaenoic acid but not arachidonic acid influences central nervous system fatty acid status in baboon neonates. Prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and essential fatty acids [Internet]. 2009;81(2–3):105–10. Available from: http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/19524425 
  • Crawford MA, Casperd NM, Sinclair AJ. The long chain metabolites of linoleic and linolenic acids in liver and brain in herbivores and carnivores. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B: Comparative Biochemistry [Internet]. 1976 Jan 1;54(3):395–401. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0305049176902649 
  • Tyburczy C, Kothapalli KSD, Park WJ, Blank BS, Bradford KL, Zimmer JP, et al. Heart arachidonic acid is uniquely sensitive to dietary arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acid content in domestic piglets. Prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and essential fatty acids [Internet]. 2011 Dec;85(6):335–43. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3208738/ 
  • Richardson AJ, Burton JR, Sewell RP, Spreckelsen TF, Montgomery P. Docosahexaenoic acid for reading, cognition and behavior in children aged 7-9 years: a randomized, controlled trial (the DOLAB Study). PLoS ONE. 2012;7(9):e43909. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22970149 
  • Dalton A, Wolmarans P, Witthuhn RC, van Stuijvenberg ME, Swanevelder SA, Smuts CM. A randomised control trial in schoolchildren showed improvement in cognitive function after consuming a bread spread, containing fish flour from a marine source. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2009 Mar;80(2–3):143–9. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19201180 
  • Colombo J, Carlson SE, Cheatham CL, Shaddy DJ, Kerling EH, Thodosoff JM, et al. Long-term effects of LCPUFA supplementation on childhood cognitive outcomes. Am J Clin Nutr [Internet]. 2013 Aug [cited 2018 Jul 12];98(2):403–12. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3712550/ 
  • Aberg MAL, Aberg N, Brisman J, Sundberg R, Winkvist A, Torén K. Fish intake of Swedish male adolescents is a predictor of cognitive performance. Acta Paediatr. 2009 Mar;98(3):555–60. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19006530 
  • Kim J-L, Winkvist A, Aberg M a. I, Aberg N, Sundberg R, Torén K, et al. Fish consumption and school grades in Swedish adolescents: a study of the large general population. Acta Paediatr. 2010 Jan;99(1):72–7. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19817726 
  • de Groot RHM, Ouwehand C, Jolles J. Eating the right amount of fish: inverted U-shape association between fish consumption and cognitive performance and academic achievement in Dutch adolescents. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2012 Mar;86(3):113–7. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22265194 
  • Baym CL, Khan NA, Monti JM, Raine LB, Drollette ES, Moore RD, et al. Dietary lipids are differentially associated with hippocampal-dependent relational memory in prepubescent children. Am J Clin Nutr. 2014 May;99(5):1026–32. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24522447 
  • Zhang J, Hebert JR, Muldoon MF. Dietary fat intake is associated with psychosocial and cognitive functioning of school-aged children in the United States. J Nutr. 2005 Aug;135(8):1967–73. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16046724 
  • Stevens LJ, Zentall SS, Abate ML, Kuczek T, Burges JR. Omega-3 fatty acids in boys with behavior, learning, and health problems. Physiology & Behavior [Internet]. 1996 Apr 1 [cited 2018 Jul 12];59(4):915–20. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0031938495022074 
  • Richardson AJ, Montgomery P. The Oxford-Durham study: a randomized, controlled trial of dietary supplementation with fatty acids in children with developmental coordination disorder. Pediatrics. 2005 May;115(5):1360–6. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15867048 
  • Sinn N, Bryan J, Wilson C. Cognitive effects of polyunsaturated fatty acids in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms: a randomised controlled trial. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2008 May;78(4–5):311–26. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18514501 
  • Sinn N, Bryan J. Effect of supplementation with polyunsaturated fatty acids and micronutrients on  learning and behavior problems associated with child ADHD. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2007 Apr;28(2):82–91. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17435458 
  • Bélanger SA, Vanasse M, Spahis S, Sylvestre M-P, Lippé S, L’heureux F, et al. Omega-3 fatty acid treatment of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Paediatr Child Health. 2009 Feb;14(2):89–98. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19436468 
  • Richardson AJ, Puri BK. A randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the effects of supplementation with highly unsaturated fatty acids on ADHD-related symptoms in children with specific learning difficulties. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2002 Feb;26(2):233–9. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11817499 
  • Hirayama S, Hamazaki T, Terasawa K. Effect of docosahexaenoic acid-containing food administration on symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder - a placebo-controlled double-blind study. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2004 Mar;58(3):467–73. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14985685 
  • Stevens L, Zhang W, Peck L, Kuczek T, Grevstad N, Mahon A, et al. EFA supplementation in children with inattention, hyperactivity, and other disruptive behaviors. Lipids. 2003 Oct;38(10):1007–21. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14669965 
  • Hamazaki T, Sawazaki S, Itomura M, Asaoka E, Nagao Y, Nishimura N, et al. The effect of docosahexaenoic acid on aggression in young adults. A placebo-controlled double-blind study. J Clin Invest [Internet]. 1996 Feb 15 [cited 2018 Jul 12];97(4):1129–33. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC507162/ 
  • Itomura M, Hamazaki K, Sawazaki S, Kobayashi M, Terasawa K, Watanabe S, et al. The effect of fish oil on physical aggression in schoolchildren — a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry [Internet]. 2005 Mar 1 [cited 2018 Jul 12];16(3):163–71. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095528630400230X 
  • Sontrop J, Campbell MK. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and depression: a review of the evidence and a methodological critique. Prev Med. 2006 Jan;42(1):4–13. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16337677 
  • Nemets H, Nemets B, Apter A, Bracha Z, Belmaker RH. Omega-3 treatment of childhood depression: a controlled, double-blind pilot study. Am J Psychiatry. 2006 Jun;163(6):1098–100. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16741212 
  • Stoll AL, Severus WE, Freeman MP, Rueter S, Zboyan HA, Diamond E, et al. Omega 3 fatty acids in bipolar disorder: a preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999 May;56(5):407–12. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10232294 
  • Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and brain, eye and nerve development (ID 501, 513, 540), maintenance of normal brain function (ID 497, 501, 510, 513, 519, 521, 534, 540, 688, 1323, 1360, 4294), maintenance of normal vision (ID 508, 510, 513, 519, 529, 540, 688, 2905, 4294), maintenance of normal cardiac function (ID 510, 688, 1360), “maternal health; pregnancy and nursing” (ID 514), “to fulfil increased omega-3 fatty acids need during pregnancy” (ID 539), “skin and digestive tract epithelial cells maintenance” (ID 525), enhancement of mood (ID 536), “membranes cell structure” (ID 4295), “anti-inflammatory action” (ID 4688) and maintenance of normal blood LDL-cholesterol concentrations (ID 4719) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006. EFSA Journal. 2011;9(4):2078. Available from: https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/2078